Buggy, M, A : Images of Creativity, Warwick University Philosophy Department, 2012 (Autumn)
This essay aims to provide a series of ideas on what creativity is, how it is improved, and a
discussion on how creativity should be fostered for the benefit of society. The first section
covers literature on creativity, working towards a definition by gathering ideas from the fields
of philosophy, science, psychology and creativity, while the second section talks about
creativity from an interdisciplinary perspective and the need for educational reform as a
bottom-up approach to fertilising the creative capacity in European society.
In western philosophy, ideas surrounding creativity tend to be occupied with the concept of transcendentalism. The notion that creativity involves something un-bodily or non-physical coming into one‟s consciousness like a vision sent from the outside. One of Nietzsche‟s earlier writings „The Brith of Tragedy‟ is based on the nature of „artistic creation‟, the book highlights a common theme in creativity literature which is the significance of paradox and the need for opposition to fuel the creative engine. He explains that the evolution of art is bound up in the duality of the „rational‟ and „irrational‟ mindset “in much the same way as reproduction depends on there being two sexes”(BT:1) Nietzsche describes intoxication and self- forgetting as portals to the creative drive which enable beings to escape their „rational‟ self and access their „irrational‟ and creative entity.1 Nietzsche‟s emphasis on the „irrational‟ as the source of creativity opposes more contemporary ideas which argue that creativity comes from the synthesis of opposing information or cognitions and not from one predominant source. Nietzsche later revised the above stated view, adding that in his youth he was carried away with sentiments against society‟s emphasis on science and neglect of the arts.2
Beatrice Han-Pile described Nietzsche‟s conception of the drive in artistic creation as one where pain is transmuted into pleasure.3 While this argument refers on a philosophical level to the inherent pain in human beings and the need to create art as a „metaphysical solace‟ or reminder of our primal spirit4; the concept of need and solutions to problems as a motive behind creativity is present in all subject categories. In Scientific method, the recurrence of anomalies, evidence or ideas that oppose a proven theory generate the need to create a new theory which resolves the problem5. The same occurs in philosophy, as a thesis, followed by an antithesis requires a creative solution to synthesise opposing theories6. In a talk given at a conference in Brussels, physicist F. David Peat argued that the very essence of creativity exists in the meeting of opposites. The talk suggested that science and philosophy must reconcile to aid discovery and the creation of new theories that explain the faults with existing ones. Peat refers to Wolfgang Pauli who proposed that physics must come to terms with “the subjective in matter” in the same way that philosophy needs explain the objective side to the unconscious.7 Pauli described how quantum theory is unable to provide an account for “the disintegration of a radioactive nucleus or predict when this will occur.”8 His proposal
1 The Birth of Tragedy- Friedrich Nietzsche (Cambridge texts) Section 1. Pg11. 2 The Birth of Tragedy- Friedrich Nietzsche (Cambridge texts) Section 1. Pg5. 3 Nietzsche’s Metaphysics in theBirth of Tragedy- Be ́atrice Han-Pile. Pg374.
4 The Birth of Tragedy- Friedrich Nietzsche (Cambridge texts) Section 1. Pg 9. 5 The Growth of Human Knowledge- Karl popper
6 The Hegel Legend of “Thesis-Antihesis-Synthesis”- Gustav E. Mueller 7 Creativity: The Meeting of Apollo and Dionysus- F. David peat
8 Creativity: The Meeting of Apollo and Dionysus- F. David peat
In western philosophy, ideas surrounding creativity tend to be occupied with the concept of transcendentalism. The notion that creativity involves something un-bodily or non-physical coming into one‟s consciousness like a vision sent from the outside. One of Nietzsche‟s earlier writings „The Brith of Tragedy‟ is based on the nature of „artistic creation‟, the book highlights a common theme in creativity literature which is the significance of paradox and the need for opposition to fuel the creative engine. He explains that the evolution of art is bound up in the duality of the „rational‟ and „irrational‟ mindset “in much the same way as reproduction depends on there being two sexes”(BT:1) Nietzsche describes intoxication and self- forgetting as portals to the creative drive which enable beings to escape their „rational‟ self and access their „irrational‟ and creative entity.1 Nietzsche‟s emphasis on the „irrational‟ as the source of creativity opposes more contemporary ideas which argue that creativity comes from the synthesis of opposing information or cognitions and not from one predominant source. Nietzsche later revised the above stated view, adding that in his youth he was carried away with sentiments against society‟s emphasis on science and neglect of the arts.2
Beatrice Han-Pile described Nietzsche‟s conception of the drive in artistic creation as one where pain is transmuted into pleasure.3 While this argument refers on a philosophical level to the inherent pain in human beings and the need to create art as a „metaphysical solace‟ or reminder of our primal spirit4; the concept of need and solutions to problems as a motive behind creativity is present in all subject categories. In Scientific method, the recurrence of anomalies, evidence or ideas that oppose a proven theory generate the need to create a new theory which resolves the problem5. The same occurs in philosophy, as a thesis, followed by an antithesis requires a creative solution to synthesise opposing theories6. In a talk given at a conference in Brussels, physicist F. David Peat argued that the very essence of creativity exists in the meeting of opposites. The talk suggested that science and philosophy must reconcile to aid discovery and the creation of new theories that explain the faults with existing ones. Peat refers to Wolfgang Pauli who proposed that physics must come to terms with “the subjective in matter” in the same way that philosophy needs explain the objective side to the unconscious.7 Pauli described how quantum theory is unable to provide an account for “the disintegration of a radioactive nucleus or predict when this will occur.”8 His proposal
1 The Birth of Tragedy- Friedrich Nietzsche (Cambridge texts) Section 1. Pg11. 2 The Birth of Tragedy- Friedrich Nietzsche (Cambridge texts) Section 1. Pg5. 3 Nietzsche’s Metaphysics in theBirth of Tragedy- Be ́atrice Han-Pile. Pg374.
4 The Birth of Tragedy- Friedrich Nietzsche (Cambridge texts) Section 1. Pg 9. 5 The Growth of Human Knowledge- Karl popper
6 The Hegel Legend of “Thesis-Antihesis-Synthesis”- Gustav E. Mueller 7 Creativity: The Meeting of Apollo and Dionysus- F. David peat
8 Creativity: The Meeting of Apollo and Dionysus- F. David peat
that “science must come to terms with the irrational”9 is caused by incompleteness in the somewhat opposed fields of philosophy and science, and highlights the role that tension between opposite‟s plays in producing a need for creativity.
Although it is widely agreed that rational and often laborious thinking is required for a creative insight to transform into something material, there is much debate over where the insight itself comes from. Arne Dietrich‟s article on „the cognitive neuroscience of creativity‟ sheds light on the issue through an integration of studies which analyse what happens in the minds of individuals during the creative thought process. Dietrich explains that the „prefrontal cortex‟ is where the most sophisticated thought processes occur, including creativity10. A function of the prefrontal cortex which is fundamental to creativity is that it integrates already highly processed information from different parts of the brain. When information enters the prefrontal cortex, this is the point that one becomes aware or conscious of that information.11 The article distinguishes between two types of creative insight; those which are „spontaneous‟ and those which are „deliberate‟. A „deliberate‟ creative insight is one that occurs when the brain integrates information in the prefrontal cortex meaning it comes from conscious thought processes, but a „spontaneous‟ insight can be fully formed before it reaches the prefrontal cortex, meaning that creative insights can occur while a being is completely unaware of it12. The article reveals that creative insights do not belong to a certain mental state, contrary to Nietzsche‟s conception that creativity originates from a spiritual, out of body entity which is ascribed to unconscious insights.
Dietrich‟s article draws on an interesting relationship between unconscious and conscious creative insights and the level of appropriateness they can achieve. She uses the definition of a creative work as something both novel and appropriate13, Dietrich shows that a „spontaneous‟ insight is less likely to produce something appropriate, and that both „deliberate‟ and „spontaneous‟ insights require rational and conscious thinking for a creative insight to become a creative work14.
„Spontaneous‟ insights are characterised by defocused attention allowing “unconscious thoughts that are comparatively more random, unfiltered, and bizarre to be represented in working memory”. On the other hand, „deliberate‟ insights involve methodical problem solving instigated by circuits in the prefrontal cortex and thus tend to be “structured, rational, and conforming to internalized values and belief systems”15. From this we can deduce that unconscious creative processes have the potential to produce something more novel as they are less restricted by a “solution space” while conscious creative processes have greater potential to be appropriate because the thinker can “direct cerebral capacities to a particular problem”16. Further; insights are only the first step in the process of making a creative work
9 Creativity: The Meeting of Apollo and Dionysus- F. David peat 10 The Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity- Arne Dietrich. Pg 1. 11 The Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity- Arne Dietrich. Pg 1. 12 The Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity- Arne Dietrich. Pg 5. 13 The Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity- Arne Dietrich. Pg 1. 14 The Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity- Arne Dietrich. Pg 5. 15 The Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity- Arne Dietrich. Pg 6. 16 The Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity- Arne Dietrich. Pg 7.
which requires high levels of conscious activity in the prefrontal cortex to develop into a finished; novel and appropriate phenomenon. Following this line of argument it becomes apparent that theories of creativity which are centred around „divergent‟ thinking like Nietzsche‟s emphasis on the „irrational being‟ or De Bono‟s concept of “lateral thinking” must be revisited to incorporate the necessity of „convergent‟ thinking.17
Chris Bilton argues that “western philosophical tradition” has supported a one-sided conception of creativity in society which has lead to an emphasis on novelty and divergent thinking and neglected the need for something creative to have „use‟ or „value‟ which requires convergent thinking18. For Bilton this propagates the idea that “creative industries can be separated out from „ordinary‟ industries as a unique sphere of activity” which creates a danger of divide between creative industries and traditional ones19. One could argue that such a divide limits an economy‟s creative ability by restricting the movement of information between industries in the same way that an individual must integrate information from both hemispheres of the brain during some forms of creative thinking.20
Another issue with the „western philosophical traditional‟ is the emphasis on creativity in individuals rather than systems, which perpetuates beliefs about needing to be a genius to be creative, and places less importance on the environmental factors which lead to an individual‟s creation. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi argued that “creativity does not happen inside peoples heads but in the interaction between a persons thoughts and a sociocultural context.”21 Notions of individualism in creativity can be damaging to an economy‟s creative ability because it contributes to the role divide between the „creatives‟ and the „strategists‟ in systems; limiting the synthesis of convergent and divergent thinking22.
Chris Bilton promotes an integrative approach to creativity on all levels; the individual, the organisation and the economy. He argues that creativity requires us to think rationally and irrationally; crossing boundaries between ways of thinking23. Although these complex qualities exist in some individuals, for Bilton creativity is “more likely to be found in groups... networks and systems, bringing together complementary competencies and personalities.”24 Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi also supports this idea that creativity arises from the “synergy of many sources” and not only the mind of an individual25.
At this point, it becomes necessary to distinguish between the creativity that is a consequence of conscious activity in beings and systems (intended or not) from the creativity that results from a natural process of change that is unconscious, but may still add value. An example of the latter is the process of biological evolution “where random variations take place in the
17 Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management. Pg 6. 18 Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management. Pg 3 19 Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management. Pg 3. 20 Creativity and the corpus callosum- Bogen JE, Bogen GM
21 Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention- Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Pg 23.
22 Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management. pg xiv.
23 Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management. pg xiv
24 Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management. pg xiv
25 Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention- Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Pg 1.
chemistry of our chromosomes”26 to produce genetic mutations, however only some of these
changes are useful, such as mutations which increase an animal‟s ability to survive, while
others can lead to a loss in use. While these two forms of creativity are not entirely separate
this essay is predominantly concerned with creativity in the socio-cultural context, which still
includes types of unconscious creativity, but is fuelled by the needs of conscious beings and
actualised by discrete, goal directed processes.
Following the contemporary ideas about creativity from Bilton and Csikszentmihalyi, leads us towards a definition where creativity entails the integration of information from various sources (minds, systems, and cultures) to develop or discover something new and of value. The following section will look at creativity in the field of physics and accounting, and how the introduction of ideas from outside their fields of study can increase the creative capability.
David Bohm argued that the study of physics through Indo-European languages with noun based subject-object structures, limits our understanding of the subject: “
Following the contemporary ideas about creativity from Bilton and Csikszentmihalyi, leads us towards a definition where creativity entails the integration of information from various sources (minds, systems, and cultures) to develop or discover something new and of value. The following section will look at creativity in the field of physics and accounting, and how the introduction of ideas from outside their fields of study can increase the creative capability.
David Bohm argued that the study of physics through Indo-European languages with noun based subject-object structures, limits our understanding of the subject: “
quantum world is flux, movement, transformation, symmetry and relationship rather than
individual objects in interaction.”27 He does not argue that western languages are inferior,
The essence of the
rather he points at how using a language centred on verbs and processes would change our
way of perceiving relationships in physics that would seem peculiar when thought in noun
based languages. By thinking of matter as a process rather than an object, Bohm shows how
matter itself can be creative; “collapsing inwards from the entire universe and then scattering
outward again... in a constant state of coming into manifestation and then un-manifesting.”28
While showing that the universe is itself a creative entity, Bohm illustrated how the
integration of information or ideas from the seemingly unrelated fields of languages and
physics enables a change of understanding which could increase the possibility of discovery
and resolving issues with existing quantum theories.
A recent paper „Listening to Accounting‟ (Bettner et. al., 2010) adopts a similar approach;
using sounds to represent numerical data rather than using visual information. The reasoning
behind the experiment is that visual perception is only one of the body‟s tools for acquiring
knowledge as “intelligence is not a monopoly of the human brain but resides throughout the
human nervous system.”29 It is argued that the reason other forms of sense-perception have
been excluded from the tools we use to acquire knowledge with is because the “Cartesian
distinction” between mind and body which was famously fashioned by Rennes Descartes has
relegated the importance of “embodied knowledge”30. The paper shows that under the correct
conditions it may be possible to detect patterns in numerical data using aural representations,
which are not as apparent under visual representations31. The end result of using sound
instead of sight will depend on many issues like finding the correct algorithm to convert
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26 Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention- Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Pg 7.
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27 Creativity: The Meeting of Apollo and Dionysus- F. David peat
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28 Creativity: The Meeting of Apollo and Dionysus- F. David peat
30 31
Dancing the Dow: Accounting and Financial Information Embodied
Dancing the Dow: Accounting and Financial Information Embodied
Dancing the Dow: Accounting and Financial Information Embodied
numbers into sounds, or how useful the detected patterns are, but the paper itself reveals how
the creative potential of a discipline can be transformed by the incorporation of intelligence
from disparate fields. Hence the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to fostering
creativity.
The following section will discuss how an interdisciplinary system in education is needed for
the economy to battle with a rapidly changing world and what methods should be used. Chris
Bilton argues that the historical tradition of specialisation at an early age in the European
education systems causes students to choose a path that is either creative or uncreative32.
Bilton contends that this path continues into the work place where people assume the roles of
„suits‟ and „creatives‟; keeping within their comfort zones. These divisions are inefficient for
a reason that is present throughout most of this essay; that creativity is cultivated by the
integration of information. Some may argue that focusing our energies on creativity is a
distraction from more serious issues like overpopulation and poverty but Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi argues that creativity is imperative to finding solutions for these
problems.33 Csikszentmihalyi‟s point is supported by Ken Robinson who claims that the
“septic focus” which begins in education prevents people from seeing the “wider potential”34
for creativity through interdisciplinary learning.
For businesses to remain competitive in a world that is constantly demanding more innovation, it is imperative that institutions, organisations and firms are structured in a way which nurtures an appropriate form of creativity. However, Bilton argues that change is unlikely to happen until it occurs at the roots of our economy; the education system.35 In „Out of Our Minds‟ Ken Robinson wrote that education systems are historically founded on “intellectual and economic” ideas about intelligence and labour markets which limit the amount of people whose natural abilities are developed in education. He adds that “current systems of education were not designed to meet the challenges we now face.”36 A transformation is necessary.
Shelley Tracey provides a framework for exploring creativity in teaching, using “creative reflection” as the method in a four stage process.37 The first stage: preparation, encourages meditative techniques aimed at generating ideas which enhance the learning process. The second stage: play, uses fun, energetic activities as a distraction from “external concerns” which encourage divergent thinking. While the final two stages; exploration and synthesis, involve active reflection with more goal orientated ideas towards creating a product, and the collaboration of ideas amongst participants. The framework aims to synthesise the experiences and learning to form new understandings or raise new questions. Tracey‟s paper offers a useful insight into developing techniques which enhance creativity in teaching.
32 Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management. pg 12.
33 Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention- Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Pg 10. 34 Out of Our Minds: Learning to be Creative- Ken Robinson Pg 62.
35 Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management. pg 13. 36 Out of Our Minds: Learning to be Creative- Ken RobinsonPg 54.
37 Creative Reflection, Creative Practice: Expressing the Inexpressible-Shelley Tracey
For businesses to remain competitive in a world that is constantly demanding more innovation, it is imperative that institutions, organisations and firms are structured in a way which nurtures an appropriate form of creativity. However, Bilton argues that change is unlikely to happen until it occurs at the roots of our economy; the education system.35 In „Out of Our Minds‟ Ken Robinson wrote that education systems are historically founded on “intellectual and economic” ideas about intelligence and labour markets which limit the amount of people whose natural abilities are developed in education. He adds that “current systems of education were not designed to meet the challenges we now face.”36 A transformation is necessary.
Shelley Tracey provides a framework for exploring creativity in teaching, using “creative reflection” as the method in a four stage process.37 The first stage: preparation, encourages meditative techniques aimed at generating ideas which enhance the learning process. The second stage: play, uses fun, energetic activities as a distraction from “external concerns” which encourage divergent thinking. While the final two stages; exploration and synthesis, involve active reflection with more goal orientated ideas towards creating a product, and the collaboration of ideas amongst participants. The framework aims to synthesise the experiences and learning to form new understandings or raise new questions. Tracey‟s paper offers a useful insight into developing techniques which enhance creativity in teaching.
32 Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management. pg 12.
33 Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention- Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Pg 10. 34 Out of Our Minds: Learning to be Creative- Ken Robinson Pg 62.
35 Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management. pg 13. 36 Out of Our Minds: Learning to be Creative- Ken RobinsonPg 54.
37 Creative Reflection, Creative Practice: Expressing the Inexpressible-Shelley Tracey
Techniques such as play may help to break barriers and increase creative abilities, but the
emphasis for education should really be at the core of creativity, in the integration of ideas
and information, allowing people to develop creative skills rather than teaching people to be
creative. Csikszentmihalyi supports this claim “It is easier to enhance creativity by changing
conditions in the environment than by trying to make people think more creatively”.38
In a report to the Secretary of State for Education and Employment „All our Futures’, Ken Robinson highlights the key to educational reform: a balance between areas of education, resolving the dichotomy between the arts and the sciences, creating high standards for literacy and numeracy skills, and cross-curricular teaching which is not frustrated by subject divisions and allows students to draw connections between subjects39. Robinson‟s framework should enhance creativity by reducing the level of underachievers who fail to find their talents due to the “hierarchy” of disciplines, and simultaneously enhance creativity through interdisciplinary learning which inspires cross-subject thinking. These are the qualities in education that will be most effective in helping to develop a creative economy that produces people with multi-faceted abilities and supply talent to a broad range of industries.
In a report to the Secretary of State for Education and Employment „All our Futures’, Ken Robinson highlights the key to educational reform: a balance between areas of education, resolving the dichotomy between the arts and the sciences, creating high standards for literacy and numeracy skills, and cross-curricular teaching which is not frustrated by subject divisions and allows students to draw connections between subjects39. Robinson‟s framework should enhance creativity by reducing the level of underachievers who fail to find their talents due to the “hierarchy” of disciplines, and simultaneously enhance creativity through interdisciplinary learning which inspires cross-subject thinking. These are the qualities in education that will be most effective in helping to develop a creative economy that produces people with multi-faceted abilities and supply talent to a broad range of industries.
38 Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention- Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Pg 7.
39 All our Futures: Creativity, Culture & Education- Ken Robinson. Pg 81.
8
Bibliography
The Birth of Tragedy- Friedrich Nietzsche (Cambridge texts)
Nietzsche’s Metaphysics in theBirth of Tragedy- Be ́atrice Han-Pile, European Journal of
Philosophy, Volume 14, Issue 3.
The Growth of Human Knowledge- Karl popper, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/
The Hegel Legend of “Thesis-Antihesis-Synthesis”- Gustav E. Mueller, Journal of the History of Ideas, Volume 19, No 3.
Creativity: The Meeting of Apollo and Dionysus- F. David peat, http://www.fdavidpeat.com/bibliography/essays/brusstk.htm
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity- Arne Dietrich, American University of Beirut, http://www.bligoo.com/media/users/0/34401/files/Arne%20Dietrich%201.pdf
Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management- Chris Bilton.
Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention- Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.
http://apira2010.econ.usyd.edu.au/conference_proceedings/APIRA-2010-316-Frandsen- Accounting-and-financial-information-embodied.pdf
Out of Our Minds: Learning to be Creative- Ken Robinson
Creative Reflection, Creative Practice: Expressing the Inexpressible-Shelley Tracey, School
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All our Futures: Creativity, Culture & Education- Ken Robinson.
The Birth of Tragedy- Friedrich Nietzsche (Cambridge texts)
Nietzsche’s Metaphysics in theBirth of Tragedy- Be ́atrice Han-Pile, European Journal of
Philosophy, Volume 14, Issue 3.
The Growth of Human Knowledge- Karl popper, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/
The Hegel Legend of “Thesis-Antihesis-Synthesis”- Gustav E. Mueller, Journal of the History of Ideas, Volume 19, No 3.
Creativity: The Meeting of Apollo and Dionysus- F. David peat, http://www.fdavidpeat.com/bibliography/essays/brusstk.htm
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Creativity- Arne Dietrich, American University of Beirut, http://www.bligoo.com/media/users/0/34401/files/Arne%20Dietrich%201.pdf
Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative Management- Chris Bilton.
Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention- Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.
http://apira2010.econ.usyd.edu.au/conference_proceedings/APIRA-2010-316-Frandsen- Accounting-and-financial-information-embodied.pdf
Out of Our Minds: Learning to be Creative- Ken Robinson
Creative Reflection, Creative Practice: Expressing the Inexpressible-Shelley Tracey, School
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